Laura C/ Tilburg University
Work psychology
this summary is based on the mandatory literature and notes from the slides/lectures
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,Laura C/ Tilburg University
Lecture: Intro to work psychology & individual differences at work
Chapter 1: Introduction to I/O Psychology
Industrial/organizational psychology vs business programs
I/O psychology Business programs
focuses on applying psychological focus on broader organizational
principles to the workplace to enhance management aspects such as accounting,
employee well-being and organizational marketing, economics, and operations (e.g.,
effectiveness. It addresses human behaviour transportation networks, cost accounting).
in organizations, covering topics like
motivation, work satisfaction, training,
employee conflict, and team dynamics
use research-based psychological principles might advocate less research-driven
to solve workplace problems approaches, like unstructured interviews,
which I/O psychologists see as less effective
relies heavily on quantitative methods, may take a more practical approach to
research, and testing techniques. I/O managing organizations without necessarily
psychologists act as both scientists emphasizing research and empirical data to
(conducting research) and practitioners the same extent
(applying research in organizations) using
the "scientist-practitioner model."
is centered on improving employee deal with organizational efficiency from a
satisfaction and performance, with the broader perspective, focusing on business
understanding that this leads to broader operations, financial performance, and
organizational success markets rather than solely on human factors
Fields in industrial/organizational psychology
Personnel Psychology:
- focuses on employee-related processes such as job analysis, recruitment, selection,
training, performance evaluation, and salary determination
- personnel psychologists design and evaluate tests for hiring and promotion to ensure
fairness and validity; they also develop job descriptions and performance appraisal
tools
- this field involves creating and assessing employee training programs and ensuring
that these initiatives align with organizational needs
Organizational Psychology:
- concerned with broader organizational dynamics, including leadership, job
satisfaction, employee motivation, communication, conflict management, and
organizational change
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-
organizational psychologists conduct employee attitude surveys to identify areas for
improvement and recommend strategies for enhancing job satisfaction,
communication, and overall organizational effectiveness
- professionals in this area also work on organization-wide programs like team
building, restructuring, and empowering employees to boost performance
Human Factors/Ergonomics:
- focuses on workplace design, human-machine interaction, ergonomics, and reducing
physical fatigue and stress
- human factors psychologists collaborate with engineers and technical staff to optimize
the physical work environment, ensuring safety and efficiency
- they may design ergonomic office furniture, improve the usability of tools and
technology, or create better work schedules to reduce fatigue
History of industrial/organizational psychology
Early Beginnings (1900s):
- I/O psychology began in the early 1900s, with Walter Dill Scott and Hugo
Munsterberg applying psychological principles to business and industry. Early
pioneers also included James Cattell, John Watson, and Lillian Gilbreth. The field
was originally called "business psychology" or "employment psychology."
World War I:
- I/O psychologists played a significant role in the war by developing tests like the
Army Alpha and Beta1 to send soldiers to appropriate roles based on mental ability.
This was the first major practical application of I/O psychology
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The Alpha test was used for recruits who could read and the Beta test for recruits who could not read.
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,Laura C/ Tilburg University
1920s and 1930s:
- the field expanded beyond employee selection, focusing on efficiency and
productivity; the Gilbreths contributed to the study of motion to reduce worker fatigue
the famous Hawthorne studies during this time revealed that social factors, like
attention from managers, played a significant role in employee productivity (the
Hawthorne effect= the phenomenon where individuals change their behaviour
simply because they are aware that they are being observed or studied).
- the Hawthorne studies were initially conducted to examine how factors like lighting,
work schedules, wages, temperature, and rest breaks affected employee performance;
however, the researchers found that these physical conditions did not consistently
impact productivity as expected- sometimes, productivity increased even when
conditions worsened and vice versa; the studies demonstrated that emotional and
social needs of employees are critical and that managerial attention, worker morale,
and the sense of being valued significantly affect productivity
this understanding led to the rise of the human relations movement in
organizational psychology, which focuses on the impact of management-
employee relations and employee well-being on organizational success
1940s to 1960s:
- after World War II, I/O psychology grew, especially with an emphasis on fair
selection techniques due to civil rights legislation
1970s to 1990s:
- the field advanced with the development of statistical methods and analysis (e.g., path
analysis, meta-analysis)
- there was also a growing interest in how work impacts family life, stress, and the
development of new employee selection methods like cognitive and personality tests;
organizational changes, like downsizing and diversity concerns, also shaped the field
> 2000s:
- technological advances significantly influenced I/O psychology, with online testing,
recruitment, and virtual meetings becoming common
- the changing workforce, with more women, increased diversity, and an aging
population, also became central to workplace psychology
- globalization and the shift toward service jobs also required a focus on cross-cultural
training and human relations skills
Research in I/O psychology
- the importance of research in I/O psychology:
o research in I/O psychology can save organizations money by improving employee
satisfaction, productivity, and reducing accidents
o research impacts daily life, from political polls to product advertisements;
understanding research helps individuals critically evaluate claims and make
informed decisions
o common sense can be misleading, and that research often disproves widely held
beliefs
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Considerations in conducting research
Ideas, hypotheses, and theories
- once a question has been asked, the next step is to form a hypothesis—an educated
prediction about the answer to a question; this prediction is usually based on a theory,
previous research, or logic
- if the results support the hypothesis, it becomes important to test the theory
- at times, a hypothesis may not be supported by a study even though the logic and
theory behind it is correct; often, a poor research design is the culprit and other times,
it is because the topic is more complicated than originally thought
Literature reviews
- once a research idea has been created, the next step is to search the literature for
similar research
- when reviewing the literature, you are likely to encounter four types of periodicals:
journals, bridge publications, trade magazines, and magazines
journals consist of articles written by researchers directly reporting the results
of a study
bridge publications are designed to “bridge the gap” between academia and
the applied world; articles in these publications are usually written by
professors about a topic of interest to practitioners, but they are not as formal
or statistically complex as articles in journals
trade magazines contain articles usually written by professional writers who
have developed expertise in a given field; the main audience for trade
magazines is practitioners in the field
magazines are designed to entertain as well as inform; magazine articles are
often written by professional writers who do not have training in the topic and
thus little expertise in what they are writing about => the “scientific”
information in magazines is often wrong
+ the internet
The location of the study
- laboratory research- commonly used because it allows researchers to control
variables
cons: limited external validity (the findings may not always generalize well to real-
world organizational settings)
- field research- conducted in real-world settings like factories or offices, has high
external validity (generalizability to real-life situations) but suffers from low internal
validity (control over variables)
the location of a study can impact results
cons: informed consent- in lab studies, obtaining consent is straightforward, but in
field settings, telling participants they are part of a study can influence their
behaviour, potentially compromising the results
universities have IRBs to ensure that research is conducted ethically,
especially when dealing with sensitive data like salaries or performance
ratings; however, not all organizational research is submitted for IRB approval
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The research method to be used
- experiments- the most powerful research method because of its ability to establish
cause-and-effect relationships; two key characteristics define an experiment:
o manipulation of independent variables: the researcher intentionally alters one or
more variables (independent variables) to observe their effect
o random assignment: subjects are randomly assigned to either experimental or
control groups
in an experiment, the independent variable is what is manipulated, and the dependent
variable is what is measured for change
- quasi-experiments are used when true experiments are not possible, such as when it's
unethical or impractical to manipulate variables
e.g.: instead of manipulating noise levels in manufacturing plants, researchers
might compare productivity in plants with naturally higher and lower noise
levels
while quasi-experiments provide useful information, they lack the control of true
experiments, as other variables could influence the results; despite these limitations, if
multiple quasi-experiments yield similar results, researchers can have more
confidence in drawing conclusions or making decisions based on the combined
evidence
- archival research- is a method that involves using previously collected data or
records to answer research questions
e.g.: personnel files could be analysed to identify common traits among good
workers or to compare turnover rates between different shifts
this method is advantageous because it is non-intrusive and cost-effective; however, it
has significant drawbacks, including the possibility of outdated or inaccurate records
and the potential absence of relevant data if it wasn't originally collected
- surveys are a common research method used to gather people's opinions on various
topics; they can be conducted via mail, interviews, phone, email, Internet, or
magazines, with the choice depending on factors like budget, time, and sample size
response rates for surveys are declining, but they can be improved with incentives,
multiple contacts, and short, well-designed questions
effective surveys use clear language, avoid hypothetical situations, and are concise
accuracy of responses is crucial, especially for sensitive topics, though inaccuracies
can occur unintentionally if respondents do not recall correct information
- meta-analysis is a statistical method used to summarize and draw conclusions from
previous research by calculating a single mean effect size based on multiple studies
unlike traditional literature reviews that rely on subjective conclusions, meta-analysis
provides an objective, quantitative measure of the effectiveness or relationship
between variables
meta-analyses involve calculating effect sizes:
correlation coefficients (r) are used when examining the relationship between two variables
(e.g., personality and job performance)
difference scores (d) are used when comparing two groups (e.g., effectiveness of a training
method)
effect sizes are interpreted as:
small (< 0.40)
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moderate (0.40–0.80)
large (> 0.80)
the actual practical significance of an effect size depends on many factors- formulas are
available to be more precise; the average effect size for an organizational intervention is 0,44
Subject samples
- while large sample sizes are preferable, smaller, well-controlled random samples can
also provide reliable results; small organizations may need to involve all employees,
while larger organizations often select a subset for practicality
- random vs. non-random selection: random sampling ensures better representation
but may not always be practical
- random selection is ideal, but researchers face challenges with voluntary
participation; some organizations resolve this by requiring employees to agree to
participate in research when hired, though this raises ethical debates about whether it
constitutes true voluntary participation
- convenience samples and random assignment: due to difficulties in obtaining
random samples, researchers often use convenience samples, such as students, and
randomly assign them to experimental conditions; random assignment helps reduce
bias and ensures more reliable results when using non-random samples
Running the study
- to collect data without bias, it's essential to provide standardized instructions that
are clear and understandable to all participants; after completing their participation,
subjects should be debriefed, meaning they are informed about the experiment's
purpose and given the opportunity to ask questions about their involvement
Statistical analysis
- statistics help determine whether results are meaningful or occurred by chance
- the 0.05 level of significance is commonly used, meaning there's a 5% or less chance
that the results occurred randomly
- significance levels only indicate the likelihood of results being due to chance; they do
not show the strength of the results => researchers use effect size, which, combined
with logic, helps determine the practical importance of the findings
- correlation= a statistical method used to determine the relationship between two
variables (e.g.: between job satisfaction and attendance or test scores and employee
performance)
! correlation does not imply causality, as a third variable, known as an intervening
variable, might explain the relationship
the correlation coefficient is a number that indicates the strength and direction of the
relationship, ranging from -1 to +1:
o a positive correlation (+) means both variables increase together (e.g., intelligence
and test scores).
o a negative correlation (-) means one variable increases while the other decreases
(e.g., alcohol consumption and test performance).
the closer the coefficient is to 1 (positive or negative), the stronger the relationship
Ethics in industrial/organizational psychology
- ethical dilemmas are ambiguous situations where individuals must make personal
judgments about right and wrong due to the absence of clear rules or laws; different
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people make different decisions in similar situations, as their backgrounds and values
shape their perspectives
- there are two types of ethical dilemmas:
o type A dilemmas involve high uncertainty, where there is no clear right or wrong
answer, and both choices have positive and negative consequences
e.g.: animal testing for drug research, which can be seen as both harmful to
animals and lifesaving for humans
o type B dilemmas are rationalizing dilemmas, where the distinction between right
and wrong is clearer; individuals may knowingly choose a wrong action that
benefits themselves; people often justify such behaviour by saying "everyone else
does it," contributing to widespread unethical behaviour
e.g.: not disclosing past damage when selling a car
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Chapter 3 (Woods & West): Individual differences at work
- people differ in various ways, and these differences impact their effectiveness and
behaviour
- the importance of individual differences depends on the context of work—whether
they help, or hinder performance depends on the job and its specific demands
- the influence of individual differences can change over time, being helpful or
detrimental at different points
- everyday people use implicit theories to understand the differences between
themselves and others, influencing how they perceive, predict, and judge others'
behaviours; these theories are not based on science, however
- the study of individual differences (differential psychology) is central to
understanding work behaviour, with a focus on areas such as personality and
intelligence/cognitive ability
Intelligence
- intelligence= the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend
complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from experience (Gottfredson, 1997)
- significant figures in the history of intelligence research:
o Francis Galton: he is known for being the first to systematically explore
intelligence differences; Galton believed intelligence was hereditary and normally
distributed in the population; his work, though foundational, is not entirely
supported by modern research.
o Alfred Binet: he created the first practical intelligence test
- intelligence isn't just about learning academically or mastering test-taking; it's
broader, including real-world problem-solving and adapting to new situations
("catching on," "making sense of things")-> this broad definition of intelligence is
often referred to as general mental ability (GMA), a key focus in differential
psychology
GMA is a general capacity that influences performance in diverse cognitive tasks; it
includes several core cognitive functions:
o problem-solving: the ability to identify solutions to complex and novel situations
o reasoning: the capability to think logically and make sense of information.
o abstract thinking: the capacity to understand concepts and ideas that are not
directly related to concrete objects or experiences
o learning ability: being able to learn from experience and apply knowledge to new
situations
o adaptability: the ability to quickly adjust to new environments, tasks, or
challenges
- models of intelligence:
o Vernon: verbal intelligence (reading, speaking, discussion, debating, writing) +
spatial/ mechanical intelligence (drawing, puzzles, looking at pictures, design)
o Cattel: crystalized ability (the knowledge and skills that a person accumulates
over time through experience, education, and learning) + fluid ability (the ability
to solve new problems and adjust)
o Spearman’s G: suggests that intelligence is not just a collection of unrelated
abilities but rather includes a single underlying factor, g, that influences
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performance across a wide variety of cognitive tasks=> if the person scores high
in a domain there is also a high chance to score high in another domain
- a breakthrough for the study of cognitive ability at work came from the development
of meta-analysis methods (allowing for a more accurate understanding of the
relationship between cognitive ability and job performance across various contexts)
initially it was believed that cognitive ability could predict performance in some jobs
but not in others; however, meta-analyses revealed that cognitive ability consistently
predicts performance across different jobs, but correlations may vary in strength
depending on the complexity of the job
Hunter and Hunter (1984) conducted a meta-analysis showing that general cognitive ability
strongly correlates with job performance:
o correlation of 0.50 or higher for medium and high complexity jobs
o lower correlations (0.23) for less complex jobs
- people with higher cognitive ability tend to acquire job knowledge faster, which
explains their better job performance
Schmidt and Hunter (2004) argued that cognitive ability enhances the acquisition of
knowledge, which is key to job success
- this link between cognitive ability and job knowledge is particularly important for
complex jobs that demand more learning and adaptability
- overall, the ability to acquire, maintain and develop one’s knowledge is always an
advantage, no matter the job they perform
- occupational attainment= the level of success an individual achieves in their career
Schmidt and Hunter provided evidence that cognitive ability not only predicts job
performance but also has a significant impact on career success
research shows that occupational attainment is related to cognitive ability
(individuals scoring higher on cognitive tests achieving higher levels of success in
terms of job performance and career progression)
Dugue et al. (1999) examined the long-term relationship between childhood cognitive
ability and adult occupational success, showing that cognitive ability measured in
childhood predicts career attainment over periods of 30-40 years
=>cognitive ability not only influences job performance but has long-term impacts on
career trajectories
Personality at work
- personality models:
the Big Five (the most widely researched; the most valid model of personality)
the Myers-Briggs type indicator (most widely used but not based on evidence; poor
validity and restrictive categories)
the Myers-Briggs type indicator: inspired by Young's architypes but not evidence based
contains 4 dimensions: introverted/extraverted, sensing/ intuitive, thinking/ feeling,
judging/ perceiving
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