The summary includes Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 10, 11, 13 and 16 according to the textbook: "Fundamentals of Social Research Methods, An African Perspective". The summary covers the study material for the Psychology 243 Test and Exam.
Chapter 1: Different methods for acquiring knowledge
How does society progress?
By constantly generating new knowledge.
Formulating specific questions and finding answers to them.
By understanding ourselves and our environment.
Non-scientific methods of acquiring knowledge
Method of authority - relying on the knowledge of prominent/significant people in
society. These people are rarely questioned or challenged. This allows individuals to
mask their ignorance.
Mystical method – the concreteness of knowledge is thought to reside in supernatural
sources, these sources are also regarded as authorities. (Ex: traditional healer). These
sources lose influence as soon as a better alternative is found.
Conventional wisdom – reflects common sense statements about the world that are
commonly accepted to be true.
Intuitive method – making judgements about the world based on what feels right.
People’s intuitive feelings may differ even when they are in the same situation.
General critique of non-Scientific methods:
There is no systematic way to determine what statements are accurate, these methods are
mostly based on faith and there are also many contradictions within these methods.
Contrasting methods:
Rationalistic method – This method is based on human reasoning and logic - the basis of
knowledge is correct reasoning. This method allows us to know what is true by principle,
observation and the use of senses is unnecessary.
Empirical method – This method is the opposite of the rationalistic method – facts are
objectively observed in nature and then form the basis of knowledge – knowledge thus based
only on what is observable and can be perceived by the senses.
NOTE: The scientific method is a continuous interplay of rationalistic and empirical methods
– Rationalism is used to formulate theories and Empiricism is used to test these theories.
The Scientific Method:
Quantitative research
1. Describe the object, relationship or situation. The object of the study must be
accurately depicted using the empirical method.
, 2. an explanation/ statement of the relationship between the described facts should be
expressed. The rationalistic method must be used and must lead to the formulation
of a natural/social law.
3. explanation from step 2 should permit a prediction of future events under well-
defined conditions. To ensure this, the correctness of the explanation must be tested.
Qualitative research
Most frequently the researcher is concentrating on the observation and recording of
the events under study.
Since very little is known about the situation under observation no a-priori
explanations are given and thus no expectations or predictions can be tested. It is
however expected that explanations will be found at the end.
Science assumes the following:
1. The existence of natural and social laws
Without this assumption, some of the main aims of scientific research would not be
attainable. These laws are assumed to exist independently of the observer and describe the
way phenomena interact.
2. Laws can be discovered by human beings
Although humans are part of nature and are subject to its laws they can discover them.
3. Natural phenomena have natural causes
Scientific understandings are based on a parsimony of ideas – parsimony requires that
explanations for phenomena be based on as few assumptions possible.
4. New knowledge is accumulated gradually and sequentially
Inventions of new instruments of investigation and new approaches to studying a problem
can lead to new advances in science.
5. Knowledge and truth are founded on evidence
Whenever a scientific claim is made, researcher must provide evidence to support that claim,
in the absence of evidence the claim remains a hypothesis.
6. Scientific statements and common sense statements must be distinguished
Common sense statements are the result of non-scientific observations as they don’t take
into consideration the different variables at stake.
7. Scientific observation is objective
The result of the observation is independent of a single observer, i.e.: it corresponds to the
description of anyone examining the same phenomenon.
,8. Scientific observation is systematic
All possibilities are considered at one time in a logical order.
Note: Predictions of events can only be made when all conditions and circumstances are
known – in social sciences one is rarely in possession of all information leading to the
occurrence of a certain phenomenon. As a result, one can rarely explain this phenomenon
with certainty.
In these cases, a probability statement is made asserting that if certain conditions are
satisfied the event will occur more often than if these conditions are not satisfied.
Explanations with a degree of uncertainty are called probabilistic explanations.
Properties/Characteristics of Scientific research:
Scientific research is empirical – Each step is based on observation. Scientific research
assumes that reality exists outside the observer. Scientists attempt to understand the
world beyond their personal biases and assumptions about their research subject.
Scientific research is systematic and logical – Observation must be done
systematically and a logical order must be followed. Logical predictions cannot be
made until a description has been given and an explanation of the observed
phenomenon found.
Scientific research is replicable and transmittable – Since observation is objective and
the explanation logical, anyone placed in the exact same circumstances can observe
the same event and through reasoning arrive at the same explanation or prediction.
It is also possible to communicate each step of the research and transmit the acquired
knowledge.
Scientific research is reductive – By grasping the main relationships between laws, the
complexity of reality is reduced. All details that are not essential or that have little
influence on the process under investigation are omitted. Reductionism must be used
with great care as it can lead to significant bias in the research process.
Scientific research must be falsifiable – A scientific claim must be stated in such a way
that it can be demonstrated to be false. For this to be the case the claim must be
testable, it must withstand empirical scrutiny. When making a prediction, a scientific
theory should not only tell us what should happen but also what should not happen.
, Chapter 2: The scientific method applied to social reality
Distinction between natural and social sciences:
Natural sciences – investigate properties of natural phenomena. Development is determined
by needs of production, commerce and industry.
Social sciences – investigate properties and laws of social phenomena. Development is
determined by a need for understanding, management and manipulation of social affairs.
Social sciences introduce methodological challenges:
Ethically, some experiments can be done on humans.
Some variables can’t be controlled; thus most results are probability statements.
Fact and theory:
Fact – Indisputable set of statements about reality.
Theory – A set of ideas or statements that explain a particular social phenomenon.
Relationship between fact and theory:
1. Facts give rise to theory:
They raise a need for explanations of the observed phenomena. Observation can lead to
systematic research and formulation of a theory.
2. Theory serves as a basis for gathering facts:
Theory specifies the facts to be systematically observed. Observation is guided by the
underlying theory of the researcher.
3. Facts allow researchers to support, improve, disprove or formulate a theory:
Facts lead to redefinition or clarification of a theory. In the absence of facts, theory must be
reformulated.
4. Process of theory reformulation is integral to the advancement of science and
knowledge:
If theories were not advanced, deeper understandings of phenomena would not be achieved.
5. Theories are typically not proved:
When data corroborates a theory it serves as evidence that the theory is tenable. Possibility
remains that. future data may contradict a theory.
6. Theory allows for classification and conceptualisation of facts:
Provides explanation of how relevant facts relate to one another.
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