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, Table of contents
Language, structures and conventions............................................................................................ 2
Writing and presenting .................................................................................................................... 9
Listening and speaking ................................................................................................................. 16
Focus on literature ........................................................................................................................ 19
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, Language, structures and conventions
Logical Connectors of Cause, Concession, and Time
• Connectors join clauses or sentences, showing relationships between ideas.
• Connectors can start sentences, indicating logical connections.
• Reason and cause connectors: because, as, since, due to, owing to, because of.
• Effect connectors: so, therefore, hence.
• Cause and effect connectors: because, as, since, now that, so that, consequently, so.
• Concessive connectors show contrast: but, although, even if, despite, in spite of, regardless, on
the other hand.
• Time and sequence connectors help present ordered points or introduce new/final points.
• Time connectors: first/second, next, then, suddenly, after, now, following, when, meanwhile,
lastly, later, since, finally.
• Example: Ignoring the speed limit, he failed to control the car when going around the sharp
bend.
• Example: First, you sit for your learner's license, then you learn to drive, and finally, you take a
driving test to prove you can drive safely.
Prepositions
• Non-native English speakers often misuse prepositions due to idiomatic usage.
• Idiomatic usage means there are no fixed rules; correct usage is shaped by how native
speakers use them.
• Learning prepositions involves observing native language use and memorising them.
• Prepositions typically come before nouns or pronouns, indicating position (by, on, at, under) or
relationships (with, of, for).
Paragraph Structure
• Essays will require discussing both sides of an argument.
• Use a formal paragraph structure:
o Begin with a topic sentence introducing the main idea.
o Provide supporting sentences for more information.
o Organise sentences logically for clear understanding.
o Use logical connectors to link sentences effectively.
Compound Words and Their Meaning
• Newspaper writers use specialised vocabulary like "headline," "byline," and "pull-quote."
• Words belonging to specific types of writing are called metalanguage.
• Words like "headline" are compound words, two words joined together.
• Compound words change meaning when combined.
• Example: "head" means most important, "line" means a group in a row.
• When joined, "headline" has a different meaning.
• A headline is the bold title of a newspaper article.
• It summarises the article's content.
Using Honorifics for Politeness
• People mentioned: Professor Lourens Schlebusch, Doctor Colina Linde, Mister Geoff Vilane.
• Honorifics show politeness or respect, indicating gender and status.
• Gender identification:
o Sir / Madam.
o Master / Miss (children).
o Mister / Ms (adults).
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,Using Euphemisms
• Euphemism is a polite term for controversial subjects.
• In English, euphemisms discuss things:
• Making us uncomfortable, like sex or death.
• Seeming rude, such as disabilities or sexual orientation.
• Leading to arguments, like religion or politics.
Tenses
• Tenses indicate when something happens (past, present, or future).
• Focus on the simple present and present progressive/continuous tenses.
• These tenses are often used in storytelling and describing ongoing actions or characters.
• Use simple present for general statements and present progressive for ongoing actions.
• In the character sketch, change sentences to appropriate tenses.
• For example, change "I was tired" to "I am tired" (present progressive/continuous).
Using Suffixes
• Adding a suffix can change a word from a verb to a noun.
• Examples of suffixes include: -ness, -ing, -tion, -ment, -acy, and more.
Formal vs. Informal Language and Textspeak
• Language choice depends on context and audience.
• Different language levels are known as registers.
• In formal situations, people use Standard English for communication.
• Informal language, like slang, is used among friends.
• "District Six" characters switch between English and Afrikaans.
• Textspeak includes abbreviations and intentionally misspelled words in social media and
messages.
• It also uses current or trendy words.
• Examples: 'cos - because, OMG! - oh my God, GOI - get over it, U - you, gr8 - great, YOLO -
you only live once, LOL - laugh out loud, yr - your.
Generalisation and Stereotype
• Generalisation states something true about most people or situations, not all.
• Stereotype is a common but often wrong idea about a type of person, like racial or gender
stereotypes.
Conjunctions and Logical Connectors
• Conjunctions and logical connectors link sentences and paragraphs to make ideas coherent
and ensure smooth flow of arguments or stories.
• Commonly used conjunctions and connectors include "firstly," "moreover," "similarly,"
"however," "because," "if," "next," and others.
• They serve functions such as ordering ideas, adding information, showing similarity or contrast,
indicating cause and effect, and sequencing events.
• Conjunctions join clauses in compound and complex sentences.
• Logical connectors help create unified and coherent paragraphs or essays by organising ideas,
adding information, contrasting, and indicating chronological sequence.
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,The passive voice
• Passive voice: Use be (is, was, is being, have been) + past participle.
• Present simple: am/are/is + past participle.
• The children are driven to school every morning.
• Present continuous: am/are/is + being + past participle.
• The children are being driven to school right now.
• Past simple: was/were + past participle.
• The children were driven to school yesterday.
• Past continuous: was/were + being + past participle.
• The children were being driven to school on Thursday.
• Present perfect simple: have/has + been + past participle.
• The children have been driven to school.
• Past perfect simple: had + been + past participle.
• The children had been driven to school by the time it rained.
Remedial grammar
• Review marked work for errors and understand why they were made.
• Repeat mistakes due to lack of comprehension or learning.
• Seek teacher's assistance if needed.
• Memorise and practice the rule consistently.
• Eventually, it will become natural in your speech and writing.
Revise modal verbs
• Modal verbs: can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, ought to, must, need
• Ability: Can you work in a team?
• Past ability: I could type faster when I was younger.
• Possibility: I might be able to do this with practice.
• Permission: May I come in? / Might I suggest asking differently?
• Present/Future possibility: Who will I give this job to? It may be Nyoni or Margie, but it could be
Piet.
• Intention: I will complete this questionnaire before my interview.
• Willingness: Will you pass me that folder? Would you please give me the list of job applicants?
• Polite offer: Would you like to sit here?
• Probability: Sindi ought to have left earlier, but she should be available for her interview by
now.
• Obligation: You must fill in that form before you are interviewed. We should always be punctual
for interviews.
• Necessity: Most of us need to work to survive.
• Deduction: This is a wonderful CV! You must be very talented!
• Asking for opinion: Shall I apply to this company or the one in Cape Town for a job?
Subject-Verb Agreement
• When speaking multiple languages, grammar rules can be confusing.
• Focus on concord, also known as the rule of agreement.
• The verb must match the subject in number and person.
• Determine how many people or things are acting in the sentence.
• A singular subject noun gets a singular verb.
• For example: "It (singular noun) is (singular verb) a system of justice."
• A plural subject noun must be followed by a plural verb.
• For example: "Memories (plural noun) will persist (plural verb) for a long time."
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,Revising emotive writing, adjectives and adverbs
• Importance of identifying and interpreting emotive and manipulative language in a text.
• Critical language awareness helps avoid being deceived or persuaded by false information.
• Emotive language can be used positively in reviews to evoke emotions and attract readers.
• It is crucial to recognise emotive language and not blindly accept its influence.
Adjectives and adverbs
• Emotive language is found in adjectives and adverbs.
• Nouns can also be used emotively.
• These parts of speech can relate to bias, prejudice, and stereotyping.
• However, they may not always have such connotations.
Vocabulary related to the reading text
• Look up unfamiliar words in reading texts.
• Write down the word and its meaning(s).
• Use these words as soon and as often as possible.
• Doing so helps revise and reinforce your everyday speech.
Revising meta-language
• Meta-language refers to the terms used to discuss texts.
• Literary criticism uses meta-linguistic terms like plot and character.
• Film studies use terms like long shot, close up, and camera angle.
• Meta-language analyses and evaluates the relationship between sound, speech, action, and
visuals in film and other audio-visual forms.
• Multi-modal texts use terms like layout, illustrations, and graphic information.
• Meta-language discusses the integration and relationships between written and visual
elements.
• Meta-language consists of technical terms used when discussing different types of texts.
Revising language in preparation for examinations
• Work with a previous exam question for language revision.
• Read the entire question before answering any part.
• Reading the question helps calm you down and shows that you can answer it.
• The brain continues to process other parts of the question even when focusing on one part.
• This is called the back-burner process, likened to a stove with front and back burners.
• The back burner represents simmering thoughts while urgent tasks are addressed.
Word choice
• Use an appropriate register and style.
• Establish your own voice by writing from your own point of view.
• Utilise a wide range of vocabulary.
• Use parts of speech correctly.
• Ensure perfect spelling.
Sentence construction
• Use a variety of simple, compound, and complex sentences.
• Use conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions correctly.
• Sequence ideas logically in sentences and paragraphs.
• Use logical connectors for coherence.
• Employ defining and non-defining relative clauses.
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, Direct and Indirect Speech
Direct Speech Example
• "I think global warming is the most important challenge of the world," said a teen.
Indirect Speech Example
• A teen said that she thought global warming was the most important challenge of the world.
Remember
• No inverted commas in indirect speech.
• Present tense becomes past tense.
• Pronouns change (e.g., "I" becomes "he/she").
• Past tense becomes past perfect tense.
• "Today" becomes "that day."
• "Yesterday" becomes "the day before."
• "Tomorrow" becomes "the day after."
Build Vocabulary with Paronyms
• Paronyms are words formed from other words.
• For instance, "companion" used by Anne Fine in an interview comes from "company."
• Companion means someone who keeps you company, like a friend.
• Useful paronyms include: imagination (from image), publicity (from public), suspicious (from
suspect), admission (from admit), accurate (from accuracy).
Using Prepositions for Place and Direction
• Prepositions indicate place and direction.
• In the interview from Activity 3, Anne Fine mentioned:
o "perched above"
o "going through"
o "down the side"
o "over the years"
• Prepositions help describe location and movement accurately.
Understanding Prefixes
• Knowing the meaning of a prefix helps decipher new words.
• For instance, "sub-" means under, so "submarine" is a ship that travels underwater.
• Common prefixes and meanings:
o "dis-" = not (e.g., distrust).
o "in-" = not (e.g., infertile).
o "inter-" = between (e.g., interchange).
o "un-" = without (e.g., uncovered).
Understanding Determiners
• Determiners are small words providing information about nouns.
• Indefinite articles don't refer to a specific item (e.g., "a book").
• Definite articles refer to a specific item (e.g., "the cup").
• Demonstratives point to something specific (e.g., "those children," "that day").
• Quantity determiners show amount (e.g., "many people").
• Matching the correct determiner with a noun follows the concord rule.
o "Fewer" indicates more than one of something countable (e.g., "There are fewer children
here than yesterday.")
o "Less" means a single amount of something uncountable (e.g., "There is less water in my
tank today than last month.")
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