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Chapter 1: Basic Concepts of Child and Adolescent Development
1.6 Theories of Development
A theory is an organised set of ideas that is designed to explain and make predictions
about development. A theory has several functions and advantages:
- A theory summarises and explains the presently known facts
- A theory aims to predicts future behaviour
- A theory stimulates new research
There are various theories of child development. They can be grouped together to form
five major theoretical perspectives of child development: the biological, psychodynamic,
learning, cognitive-developmental and contextual perspectives. An African perspective
linked to the contextual perspective will also be discussed.
1.6.1 The biological perspective
Behaviour is primarily determined by biological factors. Environmental factors are
regarded as a secondary role player in behaviour. The biological perspective emphasis
the role of heredity (genes), the nervous system (the brain) and the endocrine system
(hormones) in behaviour.
The maturational theory. One of the first biological theories by American
psychologist Arnold Gesell (1880-1961). Child development reflects a specific and
prearranged scheme or plan within the body. A natural unfolding plan and
experience matters little. Speech, play and reasoning emerge spontaneously
according to a predetermined timetable without influence from the environment.
(The maturational theory was discarded because it had little to say about the
impact of the environment).
Ethological theory. Views development from an evolutionary perspective, many
behaviours tend to be adaptive. People inherit many of these adaptive behaviours.
Ethologists believe that all animals are biologically programmed so that some kind
of learning occur only at certain stages, called critical periods. A critical period is
the stage in development when a specific type of learning can take place. (Before
or after the period learning is difficult/impossible).
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Austrian zoologist Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989) noticed that newly hatched goslings
followed whatever moving object the saw first. He hatched goose eggs and noticed
that the newly hatched goslings followed him everywhere. This behavioural pattern
remained relatively permanent.
This behaviour is called imprinting, learning that takes place during a short, early
period when attachment to any species occurs. (The critical period lasts about a
day, after that period the imprinting does not take place.) Experience is essential
for triggering programmed, adaptive behaviours.
Critical and sensitive periods:
- The terms critical and sensitive are often used as synonyms.
- Although similar, there is a difference.
- During a sensitive period the child is very susceptible to environmental
influences, but less than in the case of a critical period.
- External influences may also have an effect before and after a sensitive period.
Evolutionary theory. Charles Darwin’s (1809-1882) theory of evolution and thus his
principle of natural selection. Human behaviour results from successful adaption
to the environment. Evolution refers to the change in the inherited characteristics
over successive generations.
Evolutionary developmental theory highlights the adaptive behaviour of
children’s behaviour at different points in development. It also provides insight into
causes of problems (ex. Aggression), as well as solutions. Children’s behaviour
has evolved over the past several million years.
It is acknowledged that most forms of normal and abnormal behaviour have at
least a biological basis. The biological perspective has led to a new interest in
physiological psychology. Research contributions have been made in the following
sub disciplines:
- Neuropsychology focuses on the nervous system and the brain. Developed
neuro-imaging (brain scanning) which helps us to understand behaviour.
- Behavioural genetics studies the role of genetic factors in behaviour.
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